ZOOLOGY - VERTEBRATES

STUDY VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY ONLINE

Lesson Structure

There are 11 lessons in this course:

1. Vertebrate Taxonomy & Diversity Taxonomic Classifications
   • Phylum, Division, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
   • Vertebrata, Chordata, Acrania, Urochordata, Ascidia, Synacidiae, Thaliacea, Appendiculariae, Cyclostomata, Chondrichthyes, Osteichthyes, Choanichthyes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia
   • Morphology And Evolution
   • Environmental And Genetic Influences
   • Speciation, Diversification
   • Convergence
   • Food Types & Distribution
   • Terminology
2. Fishes - Fish Diversity
   • Class Agnatha - Jawless Fishes
   • Class Chondrichthyes - Cartilaginous Fishes
   • Class Osteichthyes - Bony Fishes
3. Ectotherms – Amphibians & Reptiles
   • Definitions, Endothermy, Ectotermic, Tetrapods
   • Urodela (Caudata) – Salamanders & Newts
   • Order Anura (Salientia) – Frogs & Toads
   • Order Apoda (Gymnophiona) – Caecilians
   • Class Reptilia – Reptiles (Turtles, Lizards, Snakes, Crocodiles & The Extinct Dinosauria)
   • Order Rhynchocephalia – Tuatara
   • Order Chelonia (Testudines) – Turtles
   • Order Crocodilia – Crocodilians
   • Order Squamata – Lizards & Snakes
4. Birds - Aves
   • Physiology & Anatomy - Feathers, Colour, Legs, Skeletal Structure, Muscles, Senses
   • Behaviour
   • Egg Formation & Hatching
   • Bird Taxonomy
   • Ratitae - Flightless Birds
   • Carinatea - Flying Birds
   • Bird Orders - Grebes, Divers, Ducks, Geese & Swans, Storks, Flamingoes & Herons, Owls, Eagles, Falcons & Hawks, Pelicans, Gannets And Cormorants
   • Chickens, Turkeys, Game Birds & Mount Birds
   • Rails, Coots & Cranes
   • Pigeons & Sand Grouse
   • Gulls, Auks & Plovers
   • Parrots, Parakeets, Hummingbirds, Swifts, Woodpeckers, Toucans, Kingfishers, Bee-Eaters & Hornbills, Trogonos, Quetzals, Plumed Birds
   • Perching Birds Such As Sparrows, Starlings, Swallows - Passeriformes
   • Diving Birds, Loons, Cuckoos, Coucals Nighthawks, Whippoorwills, Mousebirds
5. Mammals - Mammalia
   • Overview
   • Taxonomy
   • Sub Classes Prototheria - Egg Laying Animals
   • Subclass Metatheria - Marsupials
   • Subclass Eutatheria - Placental Mammals
6. Marsupials - Metatheria
   • Physiology
   • Locomotion
   • Reproduction
7. Grandorders Glires & Insectivora
   • Rodents, Rabbits, Pikas, Hedgehogs, Moles, Shrews & Tenrecs
   • Taxonomy
   • Structure
   • Adaptations
8. Carnivores
   • Dogs, Wolves, Bears, Racoons, Cats, Weasels, Hyenas, Seals, Sea Lions & Walruses
   • Taxonomy
   • Physiology
   • Adaptations
9. Hoofed Mammals - Ungulata
   • Order Artiodactyla
   • Order Cetacea
   • Order Perissodactyla
   • Order Tubulidentata
   • Order Hyracoidea
   • Order Proboscidea
   • Order Sirenia
10. Primates And Other Archonta
    • Order Scandentia
    • Order Dermoptera
    • Order Chiroptera
    • Order Primates & Sub Order Strepsirhini - Humans, Monkeys, Apes & Lemurs
11. Problem-Based Learning Project

Aims

• Distinguish between major groups of vertebrates through a demonstrated understanding of their taxonomic classification and diversity.
• Describe the distinguishing characteristics of all major groups of fishes.
• Describe the distinguishing characteristics of all major groups of Ectotherms, Amphibians and Reptiles.
• Describe the distinguishing characteristics of major groups of birds.
• Describe the distinguishing characteristics of all major groups of Mammals.
• Describe the distinguishing characteristics of animals in the order Marsupialia and compare mammalian specialisations with those of other vertebrates.
• Describe the distinguishing characteristics of animals within the grandorders Glires and Insectivora. Explain Ectothermy in a variety of different animals.
• Describe the distinguishing characteristics of animals within the order Carnivora.
• Describe the distinguishing characteristics of animals within the grand order Ungulata.
• Describe the distinguishing characteristics of animals within the grandorder Archonta.

What You Will Do

• Observe and report on the range of animals in a Zoo, Wildlife Park or even a Pet Shop.
• Identify and report on different orders of fish in an aquarium supply shop, marine park, fish retailer, or other facility.
• Research the anatomical characteristics of one species of fish.
• Investigate the biological characteristics of one species of amphibian.
• Investigate the biological characteristics of one species of reptile.
• Research the biological characteristics of one species of bird.
• Observe the behaviour of a bird or birds in the wild, or captivity.
• Investigate the biological characteristics of one species of mammal.
• Research a particular family or genus of marsupial.
• Observe and report on any animals from the Glires or Insectivora at a pet shop or zoo.
• Using knowledge from the course and technical terminology compile a scientific description and observations of a dog you have observed.
• List animals belonging to the grandorder Ungulata at a farm, pet shop or zoo.
• Research an order, family, genus or species of hooved Mammal(Ungulata).
• By observation compile a report comparing any similarities and dissimilarities between apes/monkeys and humans. Research their physical and behavioural characteristics with a view to comparing these with human characteristics.

LEARN TO IDENTIFY ANIMALS  

THERE IS A FRAMEWORK FOR CLASSIFYING AND NAMING ANIMALS

Although the term 'Higher Animals' is well established in both common and scientific language as a synonym for vertebrates, we should bear in mind that there are other groups of animals that are highly developed, namely insects and cephalopods. 

Phylum Chordata
The subphylum Vertebrata is placed within the phylum Chordata. Most chordates are bilaterally symmetrical animals with differentiation into head, trunk, and tail. As a rule, chordates are active animals. The most distinctive anatomical features of chordates are a notochord and nerve cord. The notochord is an exceptionally important characteristic of chordates.  It is like a stiffened rod that does not compress. This allows the body muscles to act against the notochord and thus allows the animal to move.

The phylum Chordata includes three subphyla:

1. Subphylum Acrania includes about 30-35 contemporary species placed in one class and three families. All are marine animals. Look like small (~10 cm or smaller) semi-transparent fish.

2. Subphylum Urochordata (Tunicata) consists of three classes of exclusively marine animals. 

3. Subphylum Vertebrata includes animals with a distinct internal skeleton.

Chordates are multicellular animals derived from embryos that have three cellular layers: endoderm (endo- internal), mesoderm (meso- medium) and ectoderm (ecto- external). They have bilateral symmetric bodies, and internal gut with two openings, mouth and anus. Only Vertebrates have a true brain with several different areas and a skeletal structure that protects the brain, the cranium. They have developed sensory organs (eyes, ears, olfactory organs). They posses a more complex digestive system, with several accessory digestive glands. The heart is chambered. They have developed more complex respiratory and muscular systems as well.

Classes within Vertebrata include:

• Cyclostomata (Lampreys and Hagfish)
• Chondrichthyes (Sharks, Skates and Rays, Elephant Fishes)
• Osteichthyes (Bony Fishes) (Choanichthyes (Lungfish) separated from this class by some researchers)
• Amphibia (Amphibians – Frogs and Toads, Newts and Salamanders, Caecilians)
• Reptilia (Crocodiles, Lizards and Snakes, Turtles and Tortoises, Marine Iguanas)
• Aves (Birds)
• Mammalia (Mammals)

Morphology and Evolution
Morphology is the study (-logy) of forms (morpho-). Animal morphology studies not only animal form, but also why animals develop in a certain way.

To understand why an animal part or structure is as we know them today, we have to study what pushes evolution in a certain path and not in another direction.

There are two major factors that determine evolution:

• Environment
• Genetics

Environment determines animal form by providing opportunities for better survival and reproduction. Environment provides for unoccupied habitats or ecological spaces (niches) where it is advantageous to develop structures or to use existing ones differently, to make the animal better suited to their environment, that is, to survive better as an individual or as a species. Thus environment puts limitations to animal evolution, and encourages certain evolutionary paths.

Morphological changes are also determined by genetics. A certain structure may change in a certain way, because there is a genetic possibility that allows for that change. But an animal cannot develop a structure when there are no genes that could be modified to develop the new structure. There must be a genetic predisposition. A primate cannot develop feathered wings because the feathered wing genes were not in primitive mammals’ evolution.

Genes are changing constantly, although the rate of change may be very slow. Genetic change is accelerated though when environmental changes are quicker. Evolution has been faster in geological times where environmental instability has been the highest.

Environment determines animal behaviour, and behaviour determines evolution as well. Animal behaviour is determined by basic survival needs:

• Feeding
• Reproducing
• Surviving predation

Any structural change that reinforces or facilitates the three functions above will be promoted if there is genetic seed for it.

The effects of evolution in animal morphology can be classified in two main types:

• Speciation
• Diversification

Speciation happens when an animal population expands geographically. In every location, the population will encounter different environments, even if differences are slight. A one degree average annual temperature variation may be a significant difference for some species.

With time, there will be genetic variation in the population due to adaptations to the different environmental factors encountered across the population living grounds. Individuals may be able to breed with other individuals living nearby. But if genetic changes become too big, for instances in populations that were separated geographically long time ago, interbreeding cannot occur, and species become more and more distinct. Eventually they will develop as separate species.

There are several diversification processes by which evolution proceeds.

• Successive adaptive radiation is the process by which a common ancestor gives rise to several different phyla, classes or families.
• Convergence is seen when two or more different animal groups show the same characteristic or feature. For instances, birds and bats have wings. Fishes and dolphins have fins. Even if the structure seems similar and serves the same purpose, that is to fly or to swim, their origin is different, they are not derived from the same structure. They developed from different primitive structures to improve the animal or its progeny’s survival.

What is needed to succeed in Zoology?

To succeed in the field of zoology you must have a keen interest in animals and the desire to spend many hours working with them. Zoological research requires the use of careful, precise methods. You must have the self-motivation to work independently as zoological work can involve long periods of time conducting researching on your own. At other times you will need to work as part of a scientific team so you will need strong communication skills to convey your ideas and be able to cooperate with others.

Where can this course lead?

Zoology is a field which is changing and adapting in response to the factors affecting our wildlife today. For this reason, job opportunities in this field will be highly varied in the future so current students need to "think outside the box".

Employment opportunities exist in private organisations, government departments, public agencies, scientific organisations, academic institutions, and more.

The following are just some of the areas where opportunities in Zoology may be found:

• Government Departments
• Research in universities and scientific organisations
• Fisheries
• Aquaculture
• Resources
• Agriculture
• Museums
• Zoos
• National Parks
• Conservation
• Wildlife management
• Environmental regulation
• Environmental legislation
• Animal breeding and genetics industry
• Inspection
• Management
• Wildlife refuge
• Biotechnology
• Education
  
  

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